• Forest
  Most of Montgomery County was covered with a variety of mature hardwood forests before settlement by Europeans. These mature forests are the single most important natural resource responsibility for MetroParks staff. These forests represent extremely old and diverse living systems that would require hundreds of years to replace.
  
  
  Forest communities are easily damaged by intrusions that disrupt the forest interior. Roads and power lines allow common edge animals and plants to penetrate into the forest and drive out rare forest species. Research clearly shows that large forest tracts are more stable and more likely to contain rare species.
  
  
  Most forested areas managed by the MetroParks have been invaded to some extent by alien plant species, particularly second growth woodlots that have been grazed by cattle. The most serious pest species are amur honeysuckle (Lonicera mackii), a shrub native to Mongolia and garlic mustard (Allaria officianalis), an herb native to Eurasia. Control of these invasive species is an ongoing effort of MetroParks.
  
  
  Cedar glades occur naturally, particularly on former pasture land where limestone is near the surface. Cedar glades provide important food and cover for wildlife, particularly during the winter. Some species such as saw-whet owls are found nowhere else. A few areas at Germantown MetroPark have been managed to prolong the life of this successional stage. Removal of canopy hardwood species that have started to over-top the cedars can be an effective management tool in dense stands. This method appears to have produced especially large cedars that provide excellent cover and winter wildlife cover.
  
  
  Most pine plantings were done in the 1930s in the old Conservancy District areas. Scotch and Austrian pines are the most common species, although some younger plantings contain white pine and spruce. In general, the older plantings, particularly the Scotch pines, are not in good condition. The trees are dying from old age and insect damage. Although they provide nesting and winter habitat for some wildlife, little can be done to save them. Younger stands, particularly those containing white pine, will have a much longer lifespan. These stands, where desired, should be periodically managed by removing canopy hardwood species that are out-competing the pines.
  
  
  
• Succession
  Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. Nothing remains the same and habitats are constantly changing. It can either happen naturally, or it can be controlled through land management to insure a desired outcome.
  
  
  Natural Succession
  These are areas that are being allowed to revert to deciduous forest. Management of successional areas have likewise been hands-off. Early attempts to modify or speed up succession by massive planting of desirable hardwoods have largely met with failure. Rabbits and deer destroy many of the seedlings and naturally-planted trees often out-compete the plantings.
  
  
  It is assumed that given enough time these areas will eventually revert to a mature forest similar to the primeval forests. It is unclear whether these forests will match the diversity of the primeval forests, and whether delicate understory wildflowers, etc. can colonize areas that are not adjacent to existing forest tracts. In any case, these successional areas will revert to some type of forest and are places where natural processes are allowed to move forward and heal the landscape. 
  
  
  Controlled Succession
  Areas designated as controlled succession are intended to provide "edge" habitat, the state of early succession that is necessary to many species of wildlife. Although early successional areas are still fairly common on the park reserves, they will not be in the future. Once successional areas form a canopy, wildlife diversity drops considerably until the forest matures, decades or centuries later. Species such as rabbits, mockingbirds and willow flycatchers, thrive in these areas and nowhere else.
  
  
  This habitat is perhaps the most difficult to maintain. One promising technique is fire. It appears to produce a very natural ecotone (edge) between grassland and forest with minimal labor and cost.

• Grassland
  In general, there are two types of grassland: cool season and warm season. Although these two types look similar, their composition, ecology and management are quite different.
  
  
  Cool-season grasslands, or meadows, are mostly composed of grasses and old field forbs (flowers) that are native to Eurasia. Many are abandoned pastures or hayfields or have been planted intentionally by MetroParks. Research shows that grassy meadows with a low to medium density of tall forbs are the most valuable to wildlife. Meadow dominated by goldenrods or other tall forbs provide little valuable cover and are low in diversity, except perhaps for fall insects. Research also indicates that large meadows and meadows surrounded by open farmland are much more attractive to grassland birds. Small, less open meadows are not as attractive to birds and are more difficult to maintain because succession occurs faster adjacent to existing forest areas.
  
  
  Warm-season grasslands, or prairies, are composed mainly of grasses and forbs that are native to Ohio. Prairies were once common in southwest Ohio. They were remnants of a time some 6000-8000 years ago when western Ohio was drier. Prairie plants grow mainly between June 1 and Sept. 15 and produce seeds in the fall. They are deep-rooted, long-lived perennials that are invigorated by spring fires.
  
  
  Prairies are more resilient than meadows and support a greater biomass and diversity. However, these grasslands are not attempts to re-create prairies exactly as they once were. A true prairie is an ancient and incredibly diverse ecosystem that we do not have the skill to reconstruct. Also, most MetroParks warm season grasslands have been planted on forest soils. However, it is very possible to provide unsurpassed grassland habitat, spectacular beauty and greatly increased biological diversity by establishing native warm-season grasslands.
  
  
  
• Wetlands
  Most wetlands on MetroParks lands are small emergent wetlands around spring seeps, seasonally wet woodlands or constructed wetlands. All of them provide habitat for an array of plant and animal species not found in other habitats.
  
  
  A few small natural wetlands have been "improved" by introducing rare or unusual wetland species that would not find their way there under normal circumstances. However, most wetland acreage in the MetroParks has been created by constructing low earthen dams across wide swales with low gradients. Some of these areas have been seeded or planted with wetland vegetation; others have merely been left without seeding. All are readily utilized by wildlife, but seeded areas are more diverse botanically.
  
  
  
• Aquatic
  MetroParks facilities contain a large number of small ponds and lakes, one large 185-acre lake, and portions of at least 9 rivers and streams.
  
  
  Ponds and lakes provide essential habitat for aquatic life as well as important recreational fishing opportunities for park visitors. Each pond and lake has been given a specific designation that defines the purpose and management of it.
  
  
  For those designated wildlife management, the priority is providing habitat for fish and wildlife. Shorelines are maintained in wildlife habitat for this goal, and aquatic weeds are not generally controlled. Ponds designated for fishing and managed to promote fishing opportunities. This can include control of shoreline vegetation in select areas to provide access, control aquatic vegetation and initial stocking of native fishes in new or restored ponds. Ponds and lakes designated for aesthetics, such as those at Cox Arboretum MetroPark, are meant to provide a scenic backdrop for the surrounding landscape.
  
  
  The four ponds at Possum Creek MetroPark are managed for stocked fishing. here, and nowhere else, MetroParks regularly stocks hatchery raised adult fish for recreational fishing.
  
  

Habitat Management
Past studies have shown that active habitat management yeilds the greatest benefit for the least of amount of expenditure. Five Rivers MetroParks employs the following methods of active management to assist in their efforts.

• Controlled Burning
  Controlled burning is an important tool for managing prairie and early successional habitat. It releases nutrients and stimulates the growth of certain plant species.
  
  
• Mowing
  Mowing is used to prevent establishment of woody species and maintain grassland areas.
  
  
• Invasive Plant Removal
  Many types of non-native plants have invaded MetroParks. These plants can compete with or eliminate native plant species. Control methods include cutting or treatment with herbicides.

Invasive Plant Species
One of the greatest threats to the biodiversity of MetroParks is invasive plant species. These are species that are not native to Ohio and crowd out native species. One of the newest volunteers groups, Habitat Healers, has been formed to help control this threat. For information about an invasive insect, see emerald ash borer


Below are photos of some of the most invasive plant species and the management methods to reduce or control each one. They include bush honeysuckle, lesser celandine, five leaf akebia, phragmites and garlic mustard.

Bush honeysuckle (Lonicera sp.) Description: Shrub. Up to 15' tall and 8" in diameter. Leaves are simple and opposite. Flowers are usually white or pink and the fruits are small red berries. Negative Effect: Quickly invades disturbed areas and prevents the establishment of native species. Can invade forest areas and shade out native understory. Very common in forests that have compacted soils. Control: The two most effective methods involve herbicides. The first method is to treat the leaves with a .5% Roundup mixture after all the other plants have become dormant for the winter. The second method is to use a basal (bark) treatment at the bottom of the plant with Garlon 4. Both of these methods require careful application to avoid damaging any native species nearby.
Sugarcreek MetroPark Trail before of treatment of bush honeysuckle	Sugarcreek MetroPark Trail after treatment of bush honeysuckle
Lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) Description: Small (<1"), dark green, shiny leaves. One of the first plants to appear in early spring. Yellow flowers. Spreads mainly in flood plains through tubers that are transported by floods. Negative Effect: Forms a dense mat that chokes out native species, especially the spring wildflowers. Can move into upland areas as well. Control: Application of a 1% Roundup/surfactant mixture as soon as the green plants appear in early spring. This should minimize the damage to any natives that come up slightly later.
Englewood MetroPark Forest before treatment of lesser celandine	Englewood MetroPark Forest after treatment (note the native plants)
Five leaf akebia (Akebia quinata) Description: Low growing vine with five leaves. Likes shade areas in upland forests. Sometimes sold as a ground cover. Negative Effect: This vine quickly overwhelms native plants and forms a thick carpet. It can crawl up seedlings and saplings. Control: Testing is underway to find the most effective way to control this vine. Early tests show promise with a 1% Roundup solution.
Englewood MetroPark Forest before treatment of five leaf akebia	Englewood MetroPark Forest after treatment of five leaf akebia
Phragmites or giant reed grass (Phragmites australis) Description: Tall grass with large brown seed heads. Stems are hollow. Grows best in wet areas but will tolerate occasional dry periods. Spreads mainly through roots. Negative Effect: Quickly takes over wetland areas and eliminated native species. Due to extensive roots, it is very hard to remove. Control: The main way to control Phragmites is with a leaf application of Roundup. However, if native species are present, it may be better to remove mature plants and selectively treat the re-sprouts to avoid damaging any remaining native plants.
Possum Creek MetroPark Trail before treatment of phragmites	Possum Creek MetroPark Trail during treatment of phragmites
Garlic mustard (Alliara petiolata) Description: Biennial. First year plants have kidney shaped leaves 1-2" across. The second year plants produce tall stalks (up to 36") with small white flowers. One plant produces up to 360 seeds. Negative Effect: This plant invades woodlands and disturbed areas. It reproduces quickly and can completely replace native vegetation in 10 years. Control: The best method of control is to prevent establishment. First year plants can be pulled before they have a chance to produce seeds. Herbicides must be used carefully to prevent damage to surrounding natives.
Garlic Mustard

Pest Management and Threats